With regards to within country migration, in 2010, around 35% of the population did not live in the city where they were born, and 14.5% (26 million) lived in another state. The number of migrants is bigger in Southern areas, whilst most people in Northern areas are originally from there. São Paulo (19.4%), Rio de Janeiro (13,1%), Paraná (16.3%) and Goiás (26.6%) had the highest proportions of people who were not originally from there. Minas Gerais (18.4%), Bahia (22.1%), São Paulo (5.8%) and Paraná (21.1%) had the largest number of people who emigrated to another state (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2010b, 2010a).

With regards to international migration, in 2010, Brazil had received around 268,500 migrants from other countries, 86.7% more than in 2000 (143,600). Of the total of international migrants, 174.6 thousand (65.0%) were Brazilians returning to Brazil. Most of the migrants were coming from the United States (51.9 thousand) and Japan (41.4 thousand). (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2010b, 2010a).

Until 1980, outmigration in Brazil used to be rare, with more people emigrating to Paraguay. In the recent years, outmigration from Brazil has become more common, frequently occurring to the United States (around 750,000 people), Paraguay (350,000), and Japan (250,000). Other countries receiving Brazilians are Portugal (circa of 65,000 people), Italy (65,000), Swiss (45,000), and the UK (30,000). Around other 500,000 Brazilians are living abroad in Europe and other continents (Committee on foreign affairs and national defense, 2004).

References:

Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. (2010a). Proporcao de migrantes entre grandes regioes, UFs e municipios. https://brasilemsintese.ibge.gov.br/populacao/proporcao-de-migrantes-entre-grandes-regioes-ufs-e-municipios.html

Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. (2010b). Vamos conhecer o Brasil. Nosso povo: Migracao e deslocamento.

Committee on foreign affairs and national defense. (2004). Brasileiros no Exterior. Portal da Câmara dos Deputados.

Hong Kong is a small and highly dense city in which people can relocate across district (within the city) without any application for migration. Relocation of residence within Hong Kong is common especially among rental households. The Census and Statistics Department regularly captures the change of residence of the population age 5 and over. In 2016 population by-census, 10.6% (745,369 persons) had internally migrated from one district to another compared to five years ago (i.e., 2011-2016). Among them, 12.2% (90,936 persons) were aged 65 or over, consisting of 44.3% males (40,264 persons) and 55.7% females (50,672 persons) (Census and Statistics Department, 2018b).

For international migration, there are no official statistics exactly recording the number of migrants moving into or out of Hong Kong. Instead, based on the number of residents, the Census and Statistics Department constantly records the net movement of Hong Kong residents (i.e., inflow less outflow). It is important to note that, this figure will cover the inflow and outflow of permanent residents as well as non-permanent residents. Non-permanent residents moving in or out of Hong Kong are usually not migrants but one-way permit holder from mainland China, foreign domestic helpers, or individuals holding working or student visa. From the year end of 2017 to 2018, there was a net movement of 66,700 persons into Hong Kong (Census and Statistics Department, 2019g), of which 42,300 were one-way permit holders from the mainland China (Census and Statistics Department, 2019j).

References:

Census and Statistics Department. (2018b). Hong Kong 2016 Population By-census – Thematic Report: Older Persons. Hong Kong Retrieved from https://www.bycensus2016.gov.hk/data/16BC_Older_persons_report.pdf

Census and Statistics Department. (2019g). Table 003: Population Growth by Component. Retrieved 9 October, 2019, from Census and Statistics Department, HKSAR https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/showtablenewexcel.jsp?tableID=003&charsetID=1

Census and Statistics Department. (2019j). Women and Men in Hong Kong – Key Statistics 2019 Edition. Hong Kong Retrieved from https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B11303032019AN19B0100.pdf

Internal migration

As per Census 2011, there were 450 million internal migrants in India, which comprise of 37% of the total population (Rajan and Bhagat, 2021). The main directions of migration reported by an earlier NSS report (2007-2008) were rural to rural (62%), urban to urban (13%) and urban to rural (5%) (Rajan and Bhagat, 2021). The states that receive the most migration are Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Kerala, and Karnataka as per the Census 2011 (Rajan and Bhagat, 2021).

External migration

According to the World Migration Report (International Organization for Migration, 2019), Indians account for the largest proportion of individuals living outside of their country, with 17.5 million international migrants originating from India. The largest corridor of migration from India was reported to be to the United Arab Emirates in 2019 (International Organization for Migration, 2019).

References:

International Organization for Migration. (2019). World Migration Report. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.

Rajan, I.S., Bhagat, B.R (2021). Internal migration in India: Integrating migration with development and urbanization policies. Thematic Working Group on Internal Migration and Urbanization of the Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development (KNOMAD) Available from: https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Policy%20Brief%20-%20Internal%20Migrationand%20Urbanization%20-%20India%20Policy%20Brief%2012%20Feb%202021.pdf

Migration from Indonesia to other countries has a long history, with records stemming from Dutch and Japanese colonial times (Raharto, 2007). In the colonial era, beginning 1890, the Dutch government started to source workers from the Dutch East Indies for labour in the plantations of Suriname in South America. After Independence, a Ministry of Labour (later changed to Ministry of Manpower) was established to manage the placements of Indonesian migrant workers abroad (BNP2TKI, 2011). Between 2016 to 2018, there were more than 760,000 Indonesian migrant workers assigned to different countries for various types of jobs, including nurses and care workers (Pusat Penelitian Pengembangan dan Informasi BNP2TKI, 2019).

According to the CIA World Factbook the net migration rate in 2017 was -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population. This suggests that more Indonesians are emigrating than foreigners are immigrating, but within country migration also plays an important role (CIA World Factbook, 2019). In 2013, the five main emigration destinations for Indonesians were Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bangladesh, and Singapore. The UNICEF migration profile for Indonesia suggests that crude net migration has risen slightly from -0.20 in the period 1995 to 2000 to -0.56 in 2010-2015. Future projections suggest that crude migration will stay relatively constant between 2015-2020 (-0.53) and 2045-2050 (-0.44) (United Nations DESA-Population Division and UNICEF, 2014). Among immigrants, the majority were reported to come from China, the Republic of Korea, the UK, Timor-Leste, and Singapore.

In-country migration also plays a considerable role in Indonesia. These often-long-established patterns of migration play a role in the varied ageing patterns observed across Indonesia (Adioetomo & Mujahid, 2014 p.30; Ananta et al., 1997). As in the case of international migration patterns, within-country migration patterns were also influenced by colonial rule, which established transmigration programmes from Java to the outer islands. This policy was maintained after Indonesian independence to move landless people from highly populated areas to less populated areas. This pattern came to a halt following the fall of the New Order (Sukamdi & Mujahid, 2015, p.5).

While some ethnic groups are known for their migration patterns, overall internal migration has been found to slow down between 1995/2000 and 2005/2010 according to Census data. At the same time, those who migrated internally were found to move further away (Sukamdi & Mujahid, 2015, pp. 12-13).

The largest proportion of migrants were aged 15 to 34 years. Among older persons, the number of people migrating were generally low but more women (52.1%) than men were found to migrate at older age. Sukamdi and Muhajid (2015) suggest that women are more likely to follow their adult children when widowed or divorced while men are more likely to re-marry. The greater number of widowed women migrating may also be related to female longevity (Sukamdi & Mujahid, 2015).

References:

Adioetomo, S. M., & Mujahid, G. (2014). Indonesia on The Threshold of Population Ageing – UNFPA Indonesia Monograph Series: No.1. (H. Posselt, Ed.; Issue 1). UNFPA Indonesia.

Ananta, A., Anwar, E. N., & Suzenti, D. (1997). Some Economic Demographic Aspects of “Ageing” in Indonesia. In Indonesia Assessment: Population and Human Resources (pp. 181–203). Australian National University and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

BNP2TKI. (2011). Sejarah Penempatan TKI Hingga BNP2TKI. http://www.bnp2tki.go.id/frame/9003/Sejarah-Penempatan-TKI-Hingga-BNP2TKI

CIA World Factbook. (2019). Indonesia. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/

Pusat Penelitian Pengembangan dan Informasi BNP2TKI. (2019). Data Penempatan dan Perlindungan TKI Periode Bulan Desember Tahun 2018. http://www.bnp2tki.go.id/uploads/data/data_14-01-2019_043946_Laporan_Pengolahan_Data_BNP2TKI_2018_-_DESEMBER.pdf

Raharto, A. (2017). Pengambilan Keputusan Tenaga Kerja Indonesia Perempuan untuk Bekerja di Luar Negeri: Kasus Kabupaten Cilacap (Decision making to work overseas among Indonesian women labor migrants: the case of Cilacap district). Jurnal Kependudukan Indonesia, 12(1), 39–54. http://ejurnal.kependudukan.lipi.go.id/index.php/jki/article/view/275/pdf

Sukamdi, & Mujahid, G. (2015). Internal Migration in Indonesia. UNFPA Indonesia Monograph Series No.3, xii, 90.

United Nations DESA-Population Division and UNICEF. (2014). Migration Profile – Common Set of Indicators. DESA-Population Division and UNICEF. https://esa.un.org/miggmgprofiles/indicators/indicators.htm

The net population movement between 1965 and 2020 in 5-year intervals is presented below (IOM, 2018).

Table 2. Net Migration Rates (per 1000) in Jamaica

 Source: Adapted from (IOM, 2018). Net migration rates in Jamaica (table 1).

*Estimated

The net migration is calculated as the rate of the number of persons returning to the country (inflow) minus the rate of the number of persons leaving the same country (outflow). Higher levels of outflow than inflow, as indicated in the table above, results in negative rates. Jamaica’s trend indicates a dominant migration movement.

Internal Migration:

The 2011 Population Census revealed that 26.4% of the population lived outside their parish of birth. It also reported that 55% of internal migrants were female, with the majority in the 20 to 29-year age group (STATIN, 2017).

International Migration

Jamaican international emigrants primarily move to the United States of America, the United Kingdom, and Canada, often in search of jobs, higher education or to be with relatives. There are several Caribbean communities in these countries (such as Brixton in the United Kingdom) which are heavily influenced by Jamaican migrants. During 2013, a total of 24,744 persons migrated to these countries, which was 4.4% below the 2012 estimate (STATIN, 2017).

Returning migrants from these countries who return to Jamaica to retire in later life comprise an interesting segment of the local population. While they may bring with them some accumulated wealth and expertise, they may feel isolated having not lived at ‘home’ for several decades and may have difficulties adjusting, which is a common, internationally observed phenomenon among returning migrants (Govia et al., 2012).

The 2018 Migration in Jamaica country profile provided by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM, 2018), presents a thorough account of Jamaican immigration and emigration patterns, both historical and current. The IOM profile details that immigrants in Jamaica are classified either as voluntary returnees (returning residents), forced returnees (deportees), Commonwealth citizens and other foreign nationals or aliens. Between 2007 and 2011, all these categories of migrants totalled 56,508 as compared to 68,201 in the later period, 2012–2016. This reflected a sizeable increase of approximately 11,700 persons arriving in Jamaica for purposes of work and/or residence.

The IOM (2018) also details international and regional emigration patterns of Jamaicans. It notes that, at present, major destinations for Jamaicans are the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, within the Caribbean region, major emigrant destinations include Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas, Sint Maarten (Dutch part of the island), Bermuda, and Curacao. The year 2006 saw an unusually high rate of emigration of over 29,000 persons, approximately 25,000 of which went to the United States.

Jamaican migrants to the United States were predominantly persons of working age, and persons under the age of 18, which is considered to contribute to the loss of potential from Jamaica’s workforce. Between this increase in 2006 and 2015, Jamaica saw a decrease in migrants to the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom.

The IOM (2018) report, therefore, reflects the phenomenon of ‘brain drain’ experienced by many Caribbean countries with regular emigration patterns of working aged persons who go abroad for education or better job opportunities and tend to stay there. Their home country then loses out on their economic contributions, expertise which otherwise may support country development and income taxes. This trend may also affect dependency ratios and fertility rates (Mishra, 2006).

For example, traditional migration patterns have resulted in emigration of health professionals to private institutions in Canada and the United States, which have had a  significant impact on the Jamaican health sector’s human resource capacity since the 1990s, creating gaps or deficiencies in the labour market (IOM, 2018).

In July 2019, the Minister of Health and Wellness indicated that Jamaica was in preliminary negotiations with Nigeria to help close the nursing gap, as well as in agreements with China, Cuba, and the UK to help meet the need for nurses and other healthcare professionals. In 2018, Jamaica lost 500 nurses to emigration, and in 2019, there was a need for at least 1,000 nurses across the public health system (Jamaica Observer, 2019).

References:

Govia, I. O. (2012). Angle of View: Heterogeneity within the Caribbean Community in the US, 2005-2007. Social and Economic Studies, 37-68.

IOM. (2018). Migration in Jamaica – A Country Profile 2018. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/books/migration-jamaica-country-profile-2018#:~:text=

Jamaica Observer. (2019). Managed Migration Strategy Needed to Mitigate Effects of Nursing Brain Drain. February 19, 2019. https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/managed-migration-strategy-needed-to-mitigate-effects-of-nursing-brain-drain/

Mishra, P. (2006). Emigration and Brain Drain: Evidence from the Caribbean. IMF Working Papers, 06(25), 1. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781451862850.001

Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN). (2017). Total Population by Broad Age Groups and Parish, 2011. https://statinja.gov.jm/Census/PopCensus/TotalPopulationbyBroadAgeGroupsandParish.aspx

Kenya is the second biggest refugee-hosting country in Africa with 259,100 (54.5% of registered refugees) originating from Somalia (UNHCR, 2019) and others from the East and the Horn of Africa due to continued conflict and displacement. The key drivers for Kenyan emigrants appear to be access to employment, education and other opportunities with top destinations being the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and other African countries, particularly the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda (International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2015).

References:

International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2015). Migration in Kenya: A country profile 2015. Nairobi, Kenya. https://publications.iom.int/books/migration-kenya-country-profile-2015

UNHCR. (2019). Kenya: Registered refugees and asylum-seekers. https://www.unhcr.org/ke/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2019/04/Kenya-Infographics_March-2019.pdf

Mexico has a long history of migration patterns including internal and international migration. Internal migration, defined as the displacement of the population within the same territory (within a municipality or federative entity) (INEGI, 2010b), continues to be an important demographic factor in Mexico. According to the 2015 Intercensal Survey (INEGI, 2015b), it is estimated that 17.4% of the residents of Mexico were born in a different entity (state, municipality, or locality) from the one they reside in or were born abroad. There are important differences among states, for example, this percentage in the state of Quintana Roo reaches 54.1% of total population in the state, followed by Baja California with 44.1%. On the other hand, the state of Chiapas presents the lowest percentage of residents reporting being born elsewhere at 3.4% of total population, followed by Guerrero with 4.9%.

Regarding international migration history, starting in the 1940s with the Bracero Program and most importantly from the 1970s onward was largely one of flows to the United States, and today, Mexico is one of the countries with the largest accumulated outwards migration in the world. More recently, Mexico has become an important transit migration country, mainly by Central Americans headed to the U.S. some of which, while they wait on their application/obtaining refugee status in the US, choose to settle temporarily or permanently within the country (INEGI, 2010b).

In 2015, just over one million people living in Mexico reported being born in another country, which is equivalent to 0.84% of the total population of the country. Showing an increasing trend in foreign immigration, this percentage has doubled in the last fifteen years (INEGI, 2015b). According to the International Migration Outlook 2017 (OECD, 2017b) immigration to Mexico increased sharply over the past two decades, while the inter-census survey (INEGI, 2015b) indicates that the number of foreign-born population has reached the level of one million, double the number than in 2000. In 2015, 34,500 foreigners were issued a new permanent resident permit, and it is estimated that 377,000 Central Americans migrants transited through Mexico in route to the USA (OECD, 2017b).

References:

INEGI. (2010b). Principales resultados del Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010. In Principales resultados del Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010. (Vol. 1).

INEGI. (2015b). Encuesta Intercensal 2015 Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 1, 85–90. http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825078966.pdf

OECD. (2017b). “Mexico” in International Migration Outlook 2017. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/migr_outlook-2017-29-en

International Migration:

Net migration into NZ for the year ended June 2019 was ~56,000 people, yielding a net migration of ~11 people per 1,000 population (Statistics NZ, 2019a). Retention rates of migrants have been increasing over time, with 89.1% of people granted residency in 2011/12 remaining in NZ after 5 years compared with 79.6% in 2001/2 (Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment, n.d.). The growth in overall migrant arrivals was driven by non-NZ citizen arrivals, with more NZ citizens leaving than arriving (Statistics NZ, 2019b).

Migrants who arrive in the country are typically younger than the general population, with over 2/3 of arrivals aged 35 years or younger. For overseas arrivals, the most common visa type was a work visa, followed by visitor then student visas (Statistics NZ, 2019b).

Internal migration: 

New Zealand residents made roughly 850,000 internal moves a year over the four years to June 2017, at a rate of ~18 moves per 100 population. Around two-thirds of these moves were within the same territorial authority (TA) area. Women were generally more mobile than men and moves peaked for the 15–39-year-olds, with declining rates to age 70+ (Statistics NZ; 2018a).

Statistics NZ (2018b) also shows the broad patterns of estimated population change due to internal migration for all Territorial Authorities in NZ for the year ended June 2017. Incidentally, most areas with the largest net gains or losses also experienced high population growth in recent years. Areas with the highest net internal migration gains in 2017 were Hamilton city, Tauranga city, and Selwyn district (Statistics NZ, 2018b).

Total fertility rate

The total fertility rate in NZ women is 61.7 per 1,000 women aged 15-44 years. Māori and Pacific women have a much higher fertility rate of 90.6 and 83.24 respectively when compared to the 50.9 per 1,000 for Europeans (table 10) (Ministry of Health, 2019). Due to the much younger median age of the Māori and Pacific population, the old age dependency ratio (population >65/ population aged 15-64 per 100 population) in these population groups is less than half that of the total population and one third that of the European population. However, while the total dependency ratio (population aged <15 and >65/population aged 15-64) for Pacific people is only two thirds that for Europeans, the ratio for Māori is slightly higher than that for Europeans (62 vs 60) as they have a much higher proportion of their population aged <15yrs.

Table 10: Median age, fertility rate, total dependency ratio, and old age dependency ratio by ethnicity (Ministry of Health 2019).

References:

Ministry of Business Innovation and Employment. (n.d.). Migration Trends report. New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.mbie.govt.nz/immigration-and-tourism/immigration/migration-research-and-evaluation/migration-trends-report/.

Ministry of Health. (2019). Report on Maternity 2017. Wellington Ministry of Health 2019.

Statistics NZ. (2018a). Internal migration estimates using linked administrative data: 2014–17. New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/reports/internal-migration-estimates-using-linked-administrative-data-201417.

Statistics NZ. (2018b). Internal migration cartograms. New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/experimental/internal-migration-cartograms.

Statistics NZ. (2019a). New Zealand net migration rate remains high. New Zealand Government Website.  Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/new-zealand-net-migration-rate-remains-high.

Statistics NZ. (2019b). Net migration levels steady. New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/net-migration-levels-steady.

Estimated migration from 2016-2021 is presented below (StatsSA, 2018d):

Table 4: Estimated provincial streams 2016–2021

Source: Adapted from: (StatsSA, 2018d). Mid-year population estimates (table 9), p.15.

The Gauteng and Western Cape provinces receive the highest number of people in-migrating, and this is most likely due to these two provinces being the economic hubs of the country. Thus, people migrate to these provinces for employment (migrating out of provinces with less economic opportunity such as the Eastern Cape, Limpopo, and KwaZulu-Natal). Gauteng is the smallest province (in area) and yet the highest populated in the country (see population density under Part 1) explaining the high in- and out-flow of people migrating in the country (StatsSA, 2018d).

The migration outside of South Africa for each of the 9 provinces are tabled below:

Table 5: Migration outside of South Africa by province

Source: Adapted from: (StatsSA, 2018d). Mid-year population estimates (table 9), p.15.

References:

StatsSA. (2018d). Quarterly Labour Force Survey. Available from: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=11882