The Brazilian official language is Brazilian Portuguese. Despite having a single language spoken around the country, there are around 305 geographically isolated indigenous groups speaking 274 different languages (Ethnologue, 2019). According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the skin colour or race in Brazil are classified as white (45.2%), black (8.9%), yellow (Asians) (0.5%), mixed race (45.1%), and indigenous (0.4%) people (Azevedo, 2015; Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2019k).

References:

Azevedo, A. L. M. dos S. (2015). IBGE – Educa | Jovens. IBGE Educa Jovens. https://educa.ibge.gov.br/jovens/conheca-o-brasil/populacao/18319-cor-ou-raca.html

Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. (2019k, June 17). Popuação residente, por cor ou raça, segundo a situação do domicílio. https://sidra.ibge.gov.br/Tabela/3175

Ethnologue. (2019). Languages per country.

The Basic Law of Hong Kong stipulates that Chinese and English are the two official languages of Hong Kong. In 2016, Cantonese is the predominant language spoken by 88.9% of the population and widely used in education, broadcasting, government administration, legislation, and judiciary, as well as for daily communication. English is a major working language spoken by 4.3% of the population and widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Putonghua is more widely used due to the increase in tourism-related commerce from the mainland, which is spoken by 1.9% of the population. The proportion of population speaking other Chinese dialects is 3.1% and other language (Filipino, Indonesian, other Asian languages and other European languages) is 1.9% (HKSAR Government, 2019a).

Hong Kong is an ethnically homogenous society, with about 92% Chinese descent which comprise the vast majority of the population. For the non-Chinese population, it consists of various ethnic groups, including 31.5% Filipino, 26.2% Indonesian, 14.5% South Asian (6.2% Indian, 4.4% Nepalese, 3.1% Pakistani, 0.8% Bangladeshi and Sri-Lankan), 11.2% Mixed, 10.0% White,  1.7% Thai, 1.7% Japanese, 1.4% other Asian, 1.1% Korean, and 0.6% Black and Latin American (HKSAR Government, 2019a).

References:

HKSAR Government. (2019a, February 2019). GovHK: Hong Kong – the Facts. Retrieved from https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/facts.htm

Key Languages

The Indian Constitution recognises 22 different languages, with Hindi as the official national language (Know India, 2020). As a multilingual country, India has one classical language known as ‘Sanskrit’, 14 modern languages, and 300 other tribal and minority languages (Fase et al., 1992).

Furthermore, most of the speech communities in India have more than one ‘language dialect’ (Fase et al., 1992). States have “linguistic autonomy”, which allows them to have their own official language along with both Hindi (national language) and English as associate languages (Fase et al., 1992, pp. 254).

Ethnic groups

There are three major ethnic groups: Dravidian (predominantly South India), Indo-Aryan (North and Central India), and Mongoloid (predominantly North-Eastern India) (Ali, 2019). In terms of religion, India is a multi-religious country in which Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism are all practiced. However, Hinduism is the dominant religion.

References:

Ali, E. (2019). Ethnic Composition of Indian Population. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332781388_Ethnic_Composition_of_Indian_Population

Fase, W., Jaspaert, K., & Kroon, S. (1992). Maintenance and loss of minority languages. J. Benjamins.

Know India. (2020). India at a Glance. Government of India. Available from https://knowindia.india.gov.in/profile/india-at-a-glance.php

Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language) is the official language of Indonesia. There are more than 700 local dialects in Indonesia. Other languages spoken are English, Dutch, and local dialects (CIA World Factbook, 2019).

Statistics Indonesia reported that there are more than 1,300 ethnicities in Indonesia, which are classified into 31 ethnic groups. The largest ethnic group in Indonesia is made up by Javanese (40.22%), followed by Sundanese (15.5%) (Na’im & Syaputra, 2011). According to the CIA World Factbook, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, Buginese, Bantenese, Banjarese, Acehnese, Dayak, Sasak, and Chinese are other ethnic groups that make up between four to one per cent of the population (CIA World Factbook, 2019).

There are five main religions reported to be practised in Indonesia. The majority of the population, according to 2010 estimates, identifies as Muslim (87.2%) making Indonesia the largest Islamic country, while maintaining its status as a secular country. Other religious groups in the country are Christians (almost 10%; Roman Catholic 2.9%; Protestant 7%), Hindus (1.7%) and other smaller faith groups (CIA World Factbook, 2019).

Indonesia’s culture is a mix of ancient traditions of the early settlers and Western influence brought during the Portuguese and Dutch colonial era (Fisher, 2018). The principles held highly in the Indonesian society stem from life in the village communities, such as the concept of gotong royong (mutual cooperation) and musyawarah (deliberation) in order to reach mufakat (consensus). These concepts are still very relevant and respected across the country and upheld in politics (Kawamura, 2011; Koentjaraningrat, 2009).

References:

CIA World Factbook. (2019). Indonesia. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/

Fisher, M. (2018). Indonesia People and Culture: Tradition and Custom. Equinox Publishing.

Kawamura, K. (2011). Consensus and democracy in Indonesia: Musyawarah-Mufakat revisited. IDE Discussion Paper, 308, 1–14.

Koentjaraningrat. (2009). Gotong Rojong: Some Social-anthropological Observations on Practices in Two Villages of Central Java.

Na’im, A., & Syaputra, H. (2011). Kewarganegaraan, suku bangsa, agama dan bahasa sehari-hari penduduk Indonesia hasil sensus penduduk 2010. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik.

English is the official language of Jamaica. However, most Jamaicans speak a form of English Creole known as Patois, which is described as a mix between English and a variety of West African languages. Patois is spoken across all segments in Jamaica, but is particularly dominant in rural areas (JNHT, 2011).

The most recent Jamaican Census (2011) identifies the following ethnic/racial groups: Black, Chinese, Mixed, East Indian, White and Other (unspecified). Though the final draft of the questionnaire requested ethnicity information, reports on ethnicity were not published. Several attempts have been made to contact the Statistical Institute of Jamaica to provide the statistics on the distribution on ethnic/racial groups but have been unsuccessful.

Following the eradication of the indigenous Caribbean people, the transatlantic slave trade significantly increased the population with predominantly Africans (Beaubrun, 1992; Edwards, 2013; Hickling, 1988). It is estimated that over 90% of Jamaicans are of African descent. Other ethnic groups apart from Spanish and English settlers arrived on the island remain up to today part of Jamaican society and have contributed to its culture (JNHT, 2011). These groups include Jews, who fled to Jamaica following the Spanish inquisition. Following the British conquest of the island, they practiced openly and today they practice at the only Jewish house of worship in Jamaica, the Shaare Shalom Synagogue. East Indians, Chinese, and Germans  arrived as indentured (working without pay but in exchange for passage to another country) labourers following the emancipation of slavery in English colonies and have had an impact on cultural and commercial sectors.

Today, East Indian and Chinese communities can be seen integrated into African families. In the late nineteenth century, the Syrian/Lebanese community migrated to Jamaica in response to the Turkish oppression and have also made lasting contributions to industry in Jamaica (JNHT, 2011).

It is interesting to note the role of religion in Jamaican society. In 2010, Jamaica held the Guinness World Record for the country with the most churches per square mile. This is reflected in the political cache of the two main overarching religious organisations in Jamaica: the Jamaica Umbrella Group of Churches and the Jamaica Council of Churches.

Another cultural cornerstone of Jamaican culture is the Rastafarian group, an Afro-centric religious and political group which emerged in the 1930’s. Rastafarians (or Rastas) practice select Christian doctrine combined with African tradition. Socially, they have been a controversial and culturally powerful group, contributing to Jamaican art and creating reggae music, popularised by the late, great Rastafarian musician Bob Marley.

The mixing of these various groups gave rise to the country’s motto ‘Out of many, one people’ (JNHT, 2011).

References:

Beaubrun, M. H. (1992). Caribbean psychiatry yesterday, today and tomorrow. History of Psychiatry, 3(11), 371-382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X9200301108

Edwards, D.J. (2013). Psychology bridge building in the Caribbean: A proposal. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 47(2), 265-276.

Hickling, F. W. (1988). Psychiatry in the Commonwealth Caribbean: A brief historical overview. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 12(10), 434-436. https://doi.org/10.1192/pb.12.10.434

Jamaica National Heritage Trust (JNHT). (2011). Jamaica National Heritage Trust – Jamaica. http://www.jnht.com/mission_function.php

There are two official languages (English and Swahili) and one national language (Swahili) but most residents in rural areas only speak their native languages, which are about 70.  Kikuyu, Luo, Luhya, Kamba and Kalenjin ethnic groups account for 70% of the nation’s total population (University of Pennsylvania, 2019). The majority of the residents in cities and town centers speak the national language (Swahili) which is spoken in several other countries such as Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, and Zaire.

References:

University of Pennsylvania. (2019). Kenya Ethnic Groups. https://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/kethnic.htm

Spanish is the official language of Mexico but there are also 68 indigenous languages originated in Mexico. The predominant and currently most spoken indigenous languages are Nahuatl (23.4%), Maya (11.6%), Tseltal (7.5%), and Mixteco (7.0%). Those who speak these four languages represent almost 50% of total population that speaks an indigenous language (INEGI, 2015b).

Classification of indigenous populations in national surveys and administrative records is done in two ways. The first asks individuals aged 3 years or above if they speak an indigenous language. In 2015, using this classification, 7.2 million indigenous people were identified, representing 6.6% of the total population of the country (INEGI, 2015b). Although the majority also speaks Spanish, 11.3% of the indigenous population speaks only their indigenous language. The states with the highest proportion of indigenous population are in the South of the country in the states of Oaxaca, Yucatán, and Chiapas, where the indigenous population represents one third of total population (INEGI, 2015b).

Another indicator to classify the indigenous population is self-recognition as indigenous or belonging to an indigenous group, even if an indigenous language is not spoken. Using this indicator, 27.5 million people self-recognise as indigenous or belonging to an indigenous group, which is greater than the number of people who speak an indigenous language (21.5% vs. 6.6% of the population). Another important group comprehends those who consider themselves Afro descendants, which are 1.4 million people, and represent 1.2% of the national population. Belonging to or self-identifying as indigenous or Afro-descendant, is associated with a lower number of years of schooling, especially in women, and limited access to health services (INEGI, 2015b).

References:

INEGI. (2015b). Encuesta Intercensal 2015 Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, 1, 85–90. http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825078966.pdf

Ethnicity

Statistics NZ (n.d.) defines ethnicity as a self-identified measure of cultural affiliation and is not a measure of race, ancestry, nationality, or citizenship. An individual can belong to more than one ethnic group. The 2005 New Zealand standard classification of ethnicity is a hierarchical classification of four levels. Level 1 of the classification has six categories and is used solely for output, not for collection. Apart from Māori, level 1 categories are ethnic groups, not ethnicities as such.

Ethnicity level 1 categories:

1 European
2 Māori
3 Pacific Peoples
4 Asian
5 Middle Eastern/Latin American/African (MELAA)
6 Other ethnicity
9 Residual categories.

Level 2 has 21 categories, which include the larger ethnicities within the level 1 groups – for example New Zealand European, Tongan, Indian. Level 3 has 36 categories, and level 4 has 233 categories (excluding residual categories). Individual ethnicities are aggregated into progressively broader ethnic groupings from level 3 up to level 1, according to geographical location or origin, or cultural similarities. Most government policy and research in NZ uses the level 1 ethnicity categories.

Table 3 outlines the proportion of the level 1 ethnicities in NZ from the 2018 census. The total adds up to >100% due to multiple ethnicities. Europeans make up the largest proportion of the population at 70%, followed by Māori (16.5%) and Asian (15%). Pacific people comprise 8.1% of the population and Middle Eastern/Latin American/African (MEELA) make up 1.5%.

Table 3: NZ level 1 ethnicity (2018 census)

Languages

New Zealand has three official languages – English, Māori, and NZ sign language. According to the 2018 census (Table 4), English is the most common language spoken, with 94.5% of the population able to hold a conversation about everyday things. The next most common languages spoken are Māori (4%), Samoan (2.2%), Northern Chinese (including Mandarin) (2%), and Hindi 1.5% (Pasifika Futures, 2017). NZ sign language is used by 0.5% of the population (Statics NZ, 2020).

Table 4: Five most common languages spoken in NZ from census 2018.

The most common Pacific languages spoken in NZ are Samoan, Tongan, and Cook Island Maori (table 5) (Pasifika Futures, 2017). Over a third of Pacific people can speak at least two languages (table 6), compared to 14.6% of the total population.

Table 5: Number of speakers and proportion who can speak the first language of their ethnic group, census 2013

Table 6: Number of languages spoken by ethnicity, census 2018

References:

Pasifika Futures. (2017). Pasifika People in New Zealand: how are we doing? Auckland Pasifika Futures 2017. Pasifika Futures: Prosperity for Pacific Families.

Statistics NZ. (n.d.). Ethnicity. New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/topics/ethnicity.

Statistics NZ. (2020). 2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights (updated). New Zealand Government Website. Available from: https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights-updated.

South Africa has 11 official languages:

• English
• Afrikaans
• Zulu
• Xhosa
• Southern Sotho
• Northern Sotho
• Tswana
• Venda
• Tsonga
• Swati
• Ndebele

The South African census makes use of the following population groups: Black, White, Coloured, Asian, and Other/unspecified.